XI Class Chemistry

Unit 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 1

1.1 Importance of Chemistry 1

1.2 Nature of Matter 2

1.3 Properties of Matter and their Measurement 4

1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement 8

1.5 Laws of Chemical Combinations 11

1.6 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 13

1.7 Atomic and Molecular Masses 13

1.8 Mole concept and Molar Masses 15

1.9 Percentage Composition 15

1.10 Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations 17

Unit 2 Structure of Atom 26

2.1 Sub-atomic Particles 27

2.2 Atomic Models 29

2.3 Developments Leading to the Bohr’s Model of Atom 34

2.4 Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom 42

2.5 Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 46

2.6 Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom 49

Unit 3 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 70

3.1 Why do we need to Classify Elements ? 70

3.2 Genesis of Periodic Classification 71

3.3 Modern Periodic Law and the present form of the Periodic Table 75

3.4 Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number > 100 75

3.5 Electronic Configurations of Elements and the Periodic Table 78

3.6 Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: 79

3.7 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements 82

Unit 4 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 96

4.1 Kössel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding 97

4.2 Ionic or Electrovalent Bond 102

4.3 Bond Parameters 103

4.4 The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory 108

4.5 Valence Bond Theory 113

4.6 Hybridisation 116

4.7 Molecular Orbital Theory 121

4.8 Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 125

4.9 Hydrogen Bonding 127

Unit 5 States of Matter 132

5.1 Intermolecular Forces 133

5.2 Thermal Energy 135

5.3 Intermolecular Forces vs Thermal Interactions 135

5.4 The Gaseous State 135

5.5 The Gas Laws 136

5.6 Ideal Gas Equation 141

5.7 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 143

5.8 Behaviour of real gases: Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour 144

5.9 Liquifaction of Gases 147

5.10 Liquid State 149

Unit 6 Thermodynamics 154

6.1 Thermodynamic State 155

6.2 Applications 158

6.3 Measurement of ÄU and ÄH: Calorimetry 163

6.4 Enthalpy Change, ÄrH of a Reaction 164

6.5 Enthalpies for Different Types of Reactions 170

6.6 Spontaneity 174

6.7 Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium 179

Unit 7 Equilibrium 185

7.1 Equilibrium in Physical Processes 186

7.2 Equilibrium in Chemical Processes – Dynamic Equilibrium 189

7.3 Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant 191

7.4 Homogeneous Equilibria 194

7.5 Heterogeneous equilibria 197

7.6 Applications of Equilibrium Constants 198

7.7 Relationship between Equilibrium Constant K, 201

Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G

7.8 Factors Affecting Equilibria 201

7.9 Ionic Equilibrium in Solution 205

7.10 Acids, Bases and Salts 206

7.11 Ionization of Acids and Bases 209

7.12 Buffer Solutions 219

7.13 Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts

Unit 8 Redox Reactions 255

8.1 Classical Idea of Redox Reactions-Oxidation and Reduction Reactions 255

8.2 Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions 257

8.3 Oxidation Number 259

8.4 Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes 269

Unit 9 Hydrogen 276

9.1 Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table 276

9.2 Dihydrogen, H2 277

9.3 Preparation of Dihydrogen, H2 278

9.4 Properties of Dihydrogen 278

9.5 Hydrides 280

9.6 Water 281

9.7 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) 285

9.8 Heavy Water, D2O 286

9.9 Dihydrogen as a Fuel 286

Unit 10 The s-Block Elements 291

10.1 Group 1 Elements: Alkali Metals 292

10.2 General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkali Metals 295

10.3 Anomalous Properties of Lithium 296

10.4 Some Important Compounds of Sodium 296

10.5 Biological Importance of Sodium and Potassium 298

10.6 Group 2 Elements : Alkaline Earth Metals 298

10.7 General Characteristics of Compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals 301

10.8 Anomalous Behaviour of Beryllium 302

10.9 Some Important Compounds of Calcium 302

10.10 Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium 304

Unit 11 The p-Block Elements 307

11.1 Group 13 Elements: The Boron Family 309

11.2 Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron 312

11.3 Some Important Compounds of Boron 312

11.4 Uses of Boron and Aluminium and their Compounds 314

11.5 Group 14 Elements: The Carbon Family 314

11.6 Important Trends and Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon 317

11.7 Allotropes of Carbon 317

11.8 Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon 319

Unit 12 Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles and Techniques 326

12.1 General Introduction 326

12.2 Tetravalence of Carbon: Shapes of Organic Compounds 327

12.3 Structural Representations of Organic Compounds 328

12.4 Classification of Organic Compounds 331

12.5 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds 332

12.6 Isomerism 340

12.7 Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism 341

12.8 Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds 348

12.9 Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds 354

12.10 Quantitative Analysis 355

Unit 13 Hydrocarbons 365

13.1 Classification 365

13.2 Alkanes 366

13.3 Alkenes 376

13.4 Alkynes 384

13.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbon 388

13.6 Carcinogenicity and Toxicity 395

Unit 14 Environmental Chemistry 398

14.1 Environmental Pollution 398

14.2 Atmospheric Pollution 399

14.3 Water Pollution 406

14.4 Soil Pollution 408

14.5 Industrial Waste 409

14.6 Strategies to control Environmental Pollution 410

14.7 Green Chemistry 4